Module 5: Environment and Human Rights

When discussing environmental issues nowadays, it is common for discussions to be centered on global warming, carbon dioxide emissions, nitrogen pollution and similar issues. However it is essential for society to also realize how environmental problems are also related to human rights issues, and how individuals living in the lower strata of society usually are on the receiving end of environmental pollution.

First and foremost it would be essential to define what environment really means. The most common notion of environment one tends to have is that of the natural world and the “green-ness” of planet Earth. This is just one type of conception of environment (though a very important one), when really, the environment is generally defined as being “where we live, work, play, worship, and go to school as well as the physical and the natural world” (Bullard, 2). Health is closely related to this general concept of environment, and Bullard lays out a definition in his introduction from the WHO as “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not just the absence of the disease or infirmity” (Ibid). An interesting relationship is seen between the two, as it is very clear in our world that lower-income groups especially those of color, usually experience the worst of both due to reasons related to each other. Environmental pollution caused by industrial waste pose environmental and thus health threats to a portion of the society that one finds is also racially segregated by this event. My first impulse is to express concern over such a matter, as in today’s society racism is a taboo topic and is looked down upon, however how much we try to stomp it down, we can’t deny the fact that it still exists. Surprisingly, the environment is one such factor that highlights racism in society and Bullard illustrates this fact by coining the term “environmental racism”.

One can’t deny that racial segregation exists and lower income groups tend to be those of color as well. The first issue to address is why is this the case? This may be a result of a continuing disparity that has existed over the years without any change. The other problem lies in the fact that governmental institutions fail to recognize such disparities connected to the environment, and changes to infrastructure must be made. However Bullard comments that “waiting for the government to act is a recipe for disaster” (Bullard, 41). The solution would be, perhaps, to protests against disparities such as environmental racism and forming groups and actions such as NIMBY (Not In My Backyard). An example of a case of opposition would be the Houston case Bean vs. Southwestern Waste Management Corp. which was the first case in U.S. history in which environmental racism was challenged using civil rights law (Bullard, 61).

People have to realize that just because they are on lower levels of the social strata doesn’t mean that their neighborhood can become a dumping ground and because they are relatively less well off, it is fine for their situation to get worst. No person should live with environmental racism as it is definitely a type of Human Rights violation according to me, not only because it further enhances disparities in society, but it also causes damage to health.

The Global South of the United States: Corporate Terrorism of the Poor

What is the Global South? The Global South is a group of countries that are poor dangerous, and underdeveloped. These countries are located mainly in Africa, Latin America, South America, and Southeast Asia. Due to many reasons, scarcity of water and food to name a few, the Global South is a difficult and dangerous place to live. In these areas, basic human rights are violated constantly, where people live in poverty and despair. Many residents have little education, little money, and little healthcare. These problems seem distant, but many would be surprised to find that there are similar problems here in the United States. Can areas in the southern United States be classified as a Global South? “The South has always been regarded as backward because of its social, economic, political, and environmental policies. By default, the region became an environmental sacrifice zone, a dump for the rest of the nation’s toxic waste”(Bullard 88). Due to these problems, along with the living conditions of the citizens and the constant violation of their basic human rights, areas in the south such as in Mississippi and Louisiana can be identified as part of the Global South.
High rates of poverty, low rates of education, scarcity of resources, and multiple health hazards are all present in the Global South, it is no surprise that they are present in the south of the United States as well. These problems are highlighted in areas like Sumter County, Alabama and many other areas in the south. The corporations that place landfills and factories that release toxic pollutants that are detrimental to their health oppress the people in these regions. One of the most corrupt states is Louisiana, where the government and industry seemingly work together to the misery of the people. Louisiana has the fourth highest poverty rate and second highest percentage of children living in poverty in the United States (Bullard 89). Alternatively, Louisiana is the second largest producer of refined oil in the United States (Bullard 90). With so many people living in poverty who have little political power, the region is easily exploited by these big industries and businesses that wish to profit off the land.
So why do chemical companies target these poorer towns with a high makeup of minorities? Due to the large oil fields in the Gulf of Mexico and the strategic importance of the Mississippi River, the petrochemical industry has targeted Louisiana. “The builders of garbage landfills, incinerators, and transfer stations have generally followed the path of least resistance, which has led to placement of their facilities in economically poor and politically powerless communities”(Bullard 60). These communities have little organization and usually cannot form effective resistance. Therefore, companies choose these towns essentially because they can get away with creating and dumping hazardous materials in these areas
How are chemical companies able to harm the surrounding citizens by polluting the air, water and ground? One of the major reasons is the government’s inability or lack of desire to regulate the industries. In many cases, the corruption in the political offices leads to the big tax breaks that the companies receive. These companies with deep pockets can afford to buy out politicians, local leaders, and residents. “The Louisiana Association of Business and Industry is arguably the most powerful lobby in the state”(Bullard 90). Lobbyist groups like the Louisiana Association of Business and Industry have groomed potential political candidates and allied with other “industry specific political coalitions, such as the powerful Louisiana Chemical Association…augments its efforts to influence and promote a pro-industry economic development mode that supports the industry’s expansion”(Bullard 91). Small African American communities such as Convent and Morrisonville
Shintech Corporation planned to build the world’s largest polyvinyl chloride plastics facility in the town of Convent, Louisiana (Bullard 100). This factory would have dumped over 8 million gallons of wastewater into the Mississippi River daily and emitted dioxin. Dioxin is a known health threat and has been proven to increase the chances of cancer and other serious illnesses (Bullard 100). Coincidently, this heavily polluting plant would have been placed next to a town with a make up of 82 percent African Americans. In a three-mile radius around this town, there are six working plants. This example of environmental injustice lacks any sort of subtlety and yet the government did not step in to protect its own citizens.
There are examples of communities being essentially bought out and moved by these large corporations. Morrisonville, Louisiana was town founded in 1870 by freed slaves (Bullard 103). In 1959, the town allowed Dow Chemical Company to purchase some land within their town, which the company then began to expand upon. In 1989 Dow began to buy the residents from their land, a process that was completed in only 2 years. Only a church and two graveyards remain of what was once Morrisonville (Bullard 104).
The oppression of the poor in the south may not seem as serious as the conflicts faced everyday by citizens of Honduras or Somalia, or other Third World countries, but nevertheless, they are serious problems. The rights of the citizens are being violated by corrupt local governments and by toxic spewing factories. Is the south a Global South? Corporations target poor African American communities to plant their poisonous factories. Citizens in the community suffer higher risks for numerous health diseases due to these companies. Poverty is rampant, education is down, and the average income is at its lowest. Perhaps it is due to the entrenched memory of slavery and the lasting remnants of the Jim Crow laws that environmental racism is still permitted in the south. Sadly, the trend does not seem to be reversing, and the south is stagnating in toxic fumes and poisonous water. Regions of Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, and others are members of the Global South, as long as large businesses and corporations continue to run the government instead of the people who live there.

Environmental Justice

Environmental Rights

Human Rights Violations as a Result of Unequal Environmental Protection

There is extensive debate over carbon emissions and their effect on global climate change. Many see global warming as the greatest environmental challenge facing the twenty-first century. It becomes easy to forget the more immediate and direct threats of environmental hazards on normal citizens with the issues of global warming circulating through the news media. Thousands have suffered and died from the lack of environmental consciousness on the part of the government. These examples of environmental abuses also represent violations of human rights.

Although human rights violations are viewed to occur on many different scales, the underlying and consistent themes tend to be inequality and unequal protection under the law. Whether this occurs in Tibet, or in the heart of Guantanamo Bay, the severity remains the same. Discrimination and class differentiation can lead to political, social and economic inequality, but also unequal environmental protection. The term “environmental protect” not only refers to environmental rights, but also human rights. “The environmental justice framework attempts to uncover the underlying assumptions that may contribute to and produce unequal protection. This framework brings to the surface the ethical and political questions of who gets what, why, and how much” (Bullard 25). Environmental injustice is a result of unequal environmental protection. Communities that are affected by environmental hazards are a result of either corporate or political environmental injustice.

In many circumstances, there are racial disparities in environmental protection. Black communities are subject to significantly more environmental hazards than non-black or white Americans. A study published by the Environmental Justice and Health Union states “blacks are much more likely to be exposed to dioxins and PCBs and to be exposed at higher levels” than white Americans (27). The study also showed “ Non-Hispanic blacks are exposed to the greatest number of chemicals” (27). This is an example of unequal exposure to environmental hazards specific to race. “Environmental racism refers to any policy, practice, or directive that differentially affects or disadvantages individuals, groups, or communities because of their race or color” (32). Corporations take advantage of poorer, uneducated communities to prevent investigation and cut costs. For example in Houston Texas “the all-white, all-male city government and private industry targeted Houston’s black neighborhoods for landfills, incinerators, garbage dumps, and garbage transfer stations” (44). Black communities end up paying the price for the conveniences enjoyed by the rest of the country. This is not dissimilar to taking advantage of slave labor, or paying black workers less to cut costs and increase profit. All are examples of discrimination, and thus are human rights violations. The abuse of African American rights is not only a result of racial discrimination, but also the class differentiation and lack of political influence as a result of poverty.

Black communities are often exposed to more environmental hazards because they lack the resources or money to fight waste management companies. For example in 1982, the North Carolina state government selected Afton to be the home of a new state-owned PCB landfill. Toxins began to leak into the Warren County drinking water and environment even though the waste dump was said to be safe. The community wound up suffering for nearly 25 years before their voices were heard. Warren County is not only home to a majority black population, but also the poorest North Carolina citizens in the state. In 1982 “[Warren County] residents earned about 75 percent of the state’s per capita income” (40). Fighting for environmental justice is a tedious and extensive process, not to mention expensive. Environmental rights tend to slip through the cracks without the financial support present in more developed (and more white) communities. As a society, we have determined human beings have a right to survive. This fundamental and natural right is clearly violated when generations of civilians are exposed to hazardous materials without the resources to protect themselves.

Human rights tend to be dealt with on an individual basis. The truth about civil, social, economic, and even environmental rights is they are all connected. Similarly, their solution must be connected. The fact that the toxic waste dump in Warren County is no longer in existence does not deal with the fact that the county doesn’t have the money to make sure the left over soil is safe and habitable. Society has a habit of placing burdens like waste and underdevelopment on a select group of people. It’s unfortunate the same issues, but in different contexts, continue to appear from decade to decade. In regards to the Warren County controversy, Dr. Mildred McClain of the Citizens for Environmental Justice stated, “Two decades is a long time to wait for justice. And it is no surprise that compensation to impacted residents was left off the table. We are still fighting for reparations for the injustice, cruelty, brutality and inhumanity of slavery and legalized discrimination in the United States from 1619 to the present day.” Hopefully we will find a solution to prevent continued injustice 

Module 5: Environmental Justice and Human Rights

“When you look at the neighborhoods that are where you have a lot of different waste facilities... the people who live closest are oftentimes the most vulnerable people who have the fewest resources to escape neighborhoods because of residential segregation, housing discrimination, and limited incomes," said Bullard, author of The Quest of Environmental Justice (30). Race is the potent factor for predicting where Locally Unwanted Land Uses (LULUs) go. A lot of people say its class, but race and class are intertwined. Because the society is so racist and because racism touches every institution--employment, housing, education, facility siting, land use decisions, you can't really extract race out of decisions that are being made by persons who are in power and the power arrangements are unequal (Bullard 13).
Many occurrences in history prove this argument to be true. For example, the Bean v. Southwestern Waste Management case originated in a town in Houston, Texas. The town was predominately black and poor. A sanitary landfill was put in the middle of the community. It was within a 1 mile radius of 7 schools. The landfill leaked and contaminated the under ground water. It took 21 years and 18 million dollars to clean up the mess. It was economic hell and the county still does not have a hospital and cannot attract any industry. The lack of immediate response from the government was due to the fact that the victims were of a vulnerable or lesser community. Therefore, they were not a top on the priority list. Another prime example of this behavior occurred during the 2001 anthrax attack in Washington, D.C. During the attack officials acted quickly to aid people in political power. These people were predominately white. This same efficiency was not implemented in the post offices. These workers were predominately black. Sadly, two African American, post office workers died.
In response to injustices such as these, the environmental justice movement has been put into effect. The environmental justice movement basically redefines what environmentalism is all about. It basically says that the environment is everything: where we live, work, play, go to school, as well as the physical and natural world (Bullard 30). And so we can't separate the physical environment from the cultural environment. We have to talk about making sure that justice is integrated throughout all of the stuff that we do. What the environmental justice movement is about is trying to address all of the inequities that result from human settlement, industrial facility siting and industrial development. What it has tried to do over the last twenty years is educate and assist groups in organizing and mobilizing, empowering themselves to take charge of their lives, their community and their surroundings. It's more of a concept of trying to address power imbalances, lack of political enfranchisement, and to redirect resources so that we as a society can create some healthy, livable and sustainable types of models.
The organization of the groups within the environmental justice movement is fairly simple. For the most part, a lot of the small grassroots groups operate from a bottom up model. They don't have boards of directors and large budgets and large staff. They do operate with the idea that everyone has a role and they are all equal in this together. The environmental justice groups are more egalitarian. It brings out the idea that power rests in all of us and when we operate as a collective, that's when we are most powerful and we move forward as a unit, as a body and not necessarily with a hierarchy. It is the idea that is something open and encouraged for society as a whole to partake in. I think a lot of it is when you can have an issue that can mobilize, organize and create the catalyst that gets thousands of people at a meeting, saying this is what we want and we're not going to back up till we get it. That's where the environmental justice movement is more of a grassroots movement of ordinary people who may not see themselves as traditional environmentalists, but are just as much concerned about the environment as someone who may be a member of the Sierra Club or the Audubon Society (Ewall).
It is difficult to pose education and reconstructive issues to people when organizing in low income and politically disenfranchised communities, especially communities with very little open space or access to natural areas. The first line is to start early. We have to educate young people that it is their right to have access to open space, green space, parks, outdoors, as opposed to people thinking that their supposed to be living in an area where the only park is a basketball court with no net. We have to give people this idea that it's their right to have access to open space and green space and we have to provide funds to make sure that we get them early on and take them on field trips, take them to a wilderness area, a refuge, a reserve, to a park-a real park and to integrate this information into our curriculum (Bullard 130).
Environmental justice is not a social program, it's not affirmative actions, it’s about justice. Until we get justice in environmental protection, justice in terms of enforcement of regulations, we should not even talk about achieving sustainable development or sustainability issues until we talk about justice. A lot of the groups that are trying to address these issues in the absence of dealing with race may be fooling themselves. We need to start getting a lot of people to think about how we can start to address the disparities and the inequities and the privileged position that some people have only because of the skin color that they were born in. And that's where the justice issues come into account.

Environmental Hazards

Environmental Hazards

Protecting our environment is not just something we can do; it's something we must do. Having a clean, healthy environment is a human right, and we must do all we can to protect our rights.  This does not just mean those who can afford it should have a clean and safe environment.  This means everyone should have and clean and safe environment.  We must all join together to make our planet healthy, because what affects one area of the globe easily affects another.  We are all connected in one way or another, so we must all do our part to help each other out by saving our planet.  Failing to do so would not just be unwise, but possibly deadly as well.

Failing to clean up our environment can have some very deadly results.  Louisiana, for example, has had the most toxic environmental releases and waste generation every year since 1989 (Bullard 93).  It has been constantly pumped full of dangerous chemicals and hazardous materials until, in 2005, the world looked in horror at what happens when the environment just can't take any more.  Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans with a great and terrible force.  It created winds that went as fast as 145 mph and a path of destruction 125 miles long.  It was a single storm that took the lives of at least 55 people, and destroyed too many homes to count (Whoriskey A01).  The environment can only take so much damage, until one day, it will strike back twice as hard as it was hit.  We must do all that we can to protect our planet so that nothing like Hurricane Katrina ever comes along again.

The problem, however, is that most well off people do not think about any of this; they let those in poorer living conditions deal with it instead.  Those with influence in this country get the lakeside homes with clean, fresh air, while other choke on polluted air in big cities.  Even if any of the richer neighborhoods did become polluted, those who could afford it could easily make sure their environment was cleaned up.  However, this is not at all the case for those in lower-income areas.  They must struggle with the environment they live in, even as it gets worse and worse.  "Poverty and pollution are intricately linked" (Bullard 4).  There is only one way to solve this problem, and that is for those in clean-air environments to start helping out those in polluted environments in whatever way they can.  If we all work together to solve this problem, it can be solved very easily.  Otherwise, we are all doomed to face the wrath our planet has in store for each and every one of us.

Outside sources

Whoriskey, Peter, Guy Gugliotta. "Storm Thrashes Gulf Coast." Washington Post August 30 (2005): A01

Environmental Racism: A Total Violation of Human Rights

In more recent years, the notion of environmental justice has become a public topic that currently has an ambiguous status in the realm of human rights. Environmental justice has yet to be determined as an actual human rights issue. However, specific subsets of environmental justice, such as environmental racism, are clearly a violation of human rights. Environmental racism is indeed a human rights issue because it inhibits certain ethic groups from living happy, healthy lives, unlike their white counterparts. It is evident in the strategic placing of landfills in minority neighborhoods around the country, and having these landfills in close proximity to these people has had an indefinite effect on their health and well-being.
The region of the United States that tends to have reoccurring problems with environmental racism is the south. Large metropolitan areas in states such as Texas and Louisiana are divided into communities that vary in ethnic residential ratios. Author Robert Bullard notes in his book The Quest for Environmental Justice that the majority of waste disposal sites in these cities are conveniently placed in sections with larger minority populations. For example, in Houston, Texas, many primarily black neighborhoods are targeted by the government as sites for landfills, and have become “the ‘dumping grounds’ for a host of other unwanted facilities, including salvage yards, recycling operations, and automobile chop shops” (Bullard 45). More specifically, “all five of Houston’s large garbage incinerators were sited in minority neighborhoods–four black and one Hispanic” (Bullard 47). The zoning of these waste sites is clearly influenced by race, which demonstrates that the government is violating the human rights of the residents of these neighborhoods.
As a result of the zoning of landfills and even chemical facilities in minority communities, the residents have to cope with “the likelihood of exposure to environmental and health risks” (Bullard 34). Almost anyone who lives within close proximity of a chemical disposal site can easily develop health problems if he or she comes in contact with the waste. A group of people who frequently suffer from the health consequences of chemical industries is that which consists of residents of the Mississippi River chemical corridor in Louisiana, which is also known as Cancer Alley. Many of the chemical plants in this area dispose of toxic waste inappropriately, and the pollution of toxic waste increases the chances of the residents’ contraction of disease. For example, in Convent, Louisiana, which is inhabited by mostly African-Americans, six operating chemical plants surrounded the community, and a seventh was added in 1996. Many of the residents developed health problems due to the extreme amount of pollution in the area (Bullard 100). The dumping of toxic waste in minority neighborhoods is a complete abuse of human rights, as it endangers the health and well-being of the residents.
Thus, “Environmental racism is real–as real as the racism found in the housing industry, educational institutions, employment arena, and judicial system” (Bullard 32). It deeply affects minorities in major cities whose neighborhoods are conveniently targeted as “ideal” locations for landfills, which in turn creates unnecessary health issues for these people. If environmental racism is conquered, then perhaps the vagueness within environmental justice can be solved to prevent any further violations of human rights.

Module 5

When we think of human rights, usually one thinks of issues such as government corruption, oppression, genocide, extreme poverty and other situations that tend to plague developing nations. It is only recently, that environmental issues have been added to this list of human rights violations. As we progress into an age where we are running out of landfills, water supplies in over urbanized areas are drying up, aquifers are deteriorating, nuclear waste is abundant, we need to stop a really think about how the ways in which we deal with these problems affect different people.
The main problems seem to boil down to the fact that as a society we chose to hide issues instead of taking the time to really deal with them. We turn to hiding our waste in areas where we can’t see it, in the hopes that it will just disappear. Seeing as our government is run by an elite group of rich white men, this usually means that the poor suffer when it comes to the environment. A perfect example of this is the city of Houston where a “NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard) [policy] was replaced with a PIMBY (Place in Blacks’ Back Yards) policy”. (Quest for Environmental Justice, 44) Because African Americans at the time did not have the rights to speak up about this injustice, let alone the money to fight, they were affected emotionally and physically by the influx of waste packed into any free space of their neighborhoods. In the eyes of the government, the problem was fixed essentially via the idea of “out of sight, out of mind”.
Louisiana is another example of how the human rights of many Americans were infringed upon by hidden environmental issues. Being one of the major centers for chemical plants, areas along the Mississippi have been renamed the “chemical corridor… [where] homes are built on top of landfills, and residents must battle frequent attempts by companies to build yet more toxic spewing facilities in their communities.” (The Quest for Environmental Justice, 95) It is not only absurd that the government would allow people to live in such dangerous situations, but inhumane to place people in areas where chemical waste is essentially slowly killing its residents. However, like the situation that plagued Houston, if that’s where the mess fits, then the government is more than willing to turn a blind eye.
While there are obvious human rights infractions committed by environment policies, we are now living in a time where the environment cannot be a bipartisan issue. Unlike third rail issues such as social security, abortion, and gay rights, politicians cannot pass legislation that will immediately fix the environment. Both parties need to come together to realize that the environment acts on its own agenda, it does not live and die by elections. The environment will continue to deteriorate and be degraded regardless of whether or not we as a society wish to accept it as fact or a left wing theory. Many poke fun at Al Gore and other environmentalists for being dramatic, or spewing propaganda. The fact of the matter is that the government needs to allocate more funds to create programs to fix the damage we’ve created, comply with the Kyoto Accords and figure out ways to use our resources in a more sustainable manner. If we can’t do this then, human rights won’t be an issue any more because there won’t be any humans to worry about.

Nothing Is Scarier Than The Truth

Today environmental destruction can be seen on both a local and global level. As cities and towns grow, air pollution and carbon emissions rise exponentially causing detrimental consequences on the environment and drastic effects on global warming. Global warming is not a subject we can take lightly. It is time for us to take action and fix the problem now. If we do not act, future generations will be forced to endure unbearable environmental factors, and our human race may be at stake. People may think they are too insignificant to fix a large-scale environmental problem; but they are wrong.

In An Inconvenient Truth, Gore presents a wide array of facts and information in a thoughtful and compelling manner. For example, he notes that the ten hottest years ever recorded have occurred in the last 14 years. As temperatures increase all over the world, storms have gotten increasingly stronger such as Hurricane Katrina. Think of the impact of just a few hundred thousand refugees, and imagine what it would be like if there were 100 million refugees. Because the artic is melting faster than ever, it is expected that the sea level could rise worldwide 20 feet. If this occurred, the World Trade Center Memorial site would be under water, and there would be devastating impacts around the globe for example in Shanghai, and Calcutta. In addition, it is predicted that within the decade there will be no more snow in Mount Kilimanjaro as a result of the temperature increase.

The fact of the matter is that we have to stop, or at least greatly reduce pollution and emissions now before it is too late. Thus, in my opinion, the most important issue of our time is stopping global warming. Al Gore brings up issues that are happening right before our eyes, and he continually provides scientific evidence that our environment is being destroyed at rapid rates. Detrimental effects on the environment are happening every minute, and it is our “time to cease this issue, and rise again to secure our future” (Al Gore). What we take for granted at this time may not be there for our children in the future if we do not fix the way we live our lives and the amount of carbon emissions we release into the atmosphere. Thus this is not just a political issue, but also a moral issue that needs to be resolved and dealt with.

Al Gore said in his powerpoint presentation that, “Everything that has ever happened in all of human history has happened on that pixel [tiny dot of the Earth]. All the triumphs and all the tragedies, all the wars all the famines, all the major advances…. it’s our home. And that is what is at stake, our ability to live on planet Earth, to have a future as a civilization.” In his presentation he makes a very important point. It is time for us to wake up, speak out, and initiate change. No more time to stall, or waste, because what we take for granted today will not be there for our children if we do not do something immediately.

Module 5 - Environmental Justice and Human Rights

As the population and economies of the world grow, a serious impact is placed on the environment. The increase of globalization of the world’s economy places strains on several ecosystems. Ecosystems populated by poor communities and those in poor nations largely inhabited by indigenous and colored peoples face the most strain. Strain is especially put on ecosystems where resources such as timber, oil, and minerals are extracted (Bullard 280).
Poverty and pollution are linked together several ways. Poverty-stricken people are exposed to the hazards of their environments. Dirty water and air along with the lack of adequate food, shelter, and health care make these people extremely sick and usually without medical aid. Poverty restricts access to better environments and limits potential growth in both communities and environments (Bullard 281). Twenty percent of children in the world’s poorest regions do not make it to their fifth birthday. This is mainly because of environment related diseases, like malaria or diarrhea (Bullard 281-282).
Environmental reparations are greatly needed. These reparations may come in many forms and resources. These forms include the cleanup of water, air, and land that has been filled with toxins by industrial companies. Reparations also include the monitoring of toxins and the conversion of certain products used by industries. The designation of environmental preservation districts is also seen as reparation. Environmental preservations would require a property owner restore the ecosystem if damaged (Bullard 219).
Our world is greatly affected by the growth in population and economy. Much strain has been placed upon our environments because of this growth. The health of many people, especially those who are impoverished, is affected by damage to the environment in which they live. Environmental reparations are necessary to improving both the environment and the lives of many. Clean air, land, and water would be beneficial to not just these communities but to everyone else as well.

Environmental Destruction on Both Local and Global Levels

People choose where they live for many different reasons. Often, a deciding factor in locating a desirable community for raising a family is the environment and the climate associated with that region. When large chemical companies come into a community, caring little for the well being of the local residents, there are often dire consequences for the area. Environmental destruction can easily be seen on both the local and global level, leading to detrimental consequences for civilization as a whole.
As cities and towns continue to grow, air pollution increases concurrently with the rising demands placed on the environment by local communities. While small towns may not directly cause the waste that they are associated with, suburbs often become dumping grounds for the big cities. It is true that there is a certain amount of waste and pollution that will be generated regardless of the actions taken to prevent it. However, both where the waste facilities are built and their faulty construction becomes an issue that frequently alters the lives of unfortunate community members. The construction of large plants are generally in areas that companies deem to show the least likelihood for resistance. Generally, these are minority-based communities that offer little in terms of time or the financial resources needed to fight off company plans to locate in a region. According to Bullard, “The builders of garbage landfills, incinerators, and transfer stations have generally followed the path of least resistance, which has led to placement of their facilities in economically poor and politically powerless communities.” (Bullard 60) Already lacking in resources, lower socioeconomic communities are often swayed by the company promises of bringing new jobs and money to the area. Little regard is paid to the possibility of permanent damage to the lands so often used by generations past.
Once companies have established a foothold in a community due to the lack of resistance by community members or the shady deals struck by politicians looking to turn a profit, the construction of the plants often goes unchecked with broken community promises. Companies that once promised to bring work to an impoverished area often fail in their commitments, instead offering only a small percentage of undesirable jobs to the locals. Gas leaks and explosions are commonplace in communities highlighted by these dangerous plants. According to the New Orleans Times-Picayune, “Loud noises, noxious odors and deadly chemicals are the constant neighbors of the citizens of Norco…Unexplained booming noises shake their homes in the night. Strange smells waft into their homes, producing headaches and breathing difficulties.” (Bullard 96) Protection from such dangers should have been accounted for in the initial construction of plants and refineries. Not only are the plants located deep within communities, but also they are often built within hundreds of feet of schools.
The effects of many small communities being overrun by pollutants compounded thousands of times over, leads to an extremely gloomy outlook for earth and its fragile ecological balance. Of course as Al Gore jokes, this is not to be confused by the supposed “balance” of gold bars and the entire earth. According to adversaries of global warming, generating wealth for their big time corporations should take an equal if not higher weight when compared with protecting the environment. This is the type of ideology that leads to cheaply made and installed parts that are the main cause of the aforementioned explosions and gas leaks that are so damaging to the environment and its inhabitants. A stricter global standard must be placed on pollution emissions. In addition to protecting the earth as a whole, the places that are unfortunate enough to house such industry would benefit with lower health risks and a better standard of living.
We must step away from the idea that people are too insignificant to generate change on such a large scale. As Gore put it, “We have everything, save perhaps political will. But in America, I believe political will is a renewable source.” Citizens of earth must band together to create a united front against global warming. Without a concerted effort to reverse the disturbing trend of the ozone being depleted and destroyed, future generations will be forced to endure unbearable living conditions that could ultimately lead to a failure of our race. This is not something that should be taken lightly, nor should it be looked at as something we can just put off until the next generation.

Environmental Racism (Module 5)

Environmental equality is a governmental issue. Hence, the government has endorsed movements such as the Not In My Backyard (NIMBY) and has passed unequal zoning laws and landfill constructions. Robert D. Bullard states, “The dominant environmental protection paradigm reinforces instead of challenges the stratification of people (according to race, ethnicity, status, power, and so on), places (central cities, rural areas, unincorporated areas, Native American reservations, and so on), and types of work (for example, office workers are afforded greater protection than farm workers)” (p. 29). Resulting in an unequal allotment of protection, this leaves certain classes in the minority and puts them at greater risk of being unprotected. It is evident that some ethnicities (African American, Latino, etc) are more vulnerable to health risks due to living in a less protected or monitored portions of the environment.
Research has proven that this lack of protection leaves minorities at risk. Bullard states, “Clean air is a basic right. Air pollution is not randomly distributed across communities and the landscape, so some populations are at greater risk from dirty air” (p. 34). Percentage breakdowns suggest Caucasians are least affected by such poor air quality situations, leaving most minorities literally in the dust. It is a basic right to be given equal opportunities such as breathing clean air and to access fresh drinking water. Discriminating, against a certain faction of people, does not allow for an equal distribution of human rights.
This issue is not new in society today. Unfortunately, environmental discrimination and segregation in general has a long history of being instituted in the United States; “Environmental racism is also a by-product of the racial segregation and discrimination legitimated in the southern United States by Jim Crow laws (enacted between 1877 and 1954…)” (Bullard, p. 87). Hence, segregation of minority classes has influenced the laws of environmental protection. However, instead of seeing an increase of equality, further stratification of certain groups is becoming increasingly apparent.
Minority groups face an uphill battle in the environmental protection war; “The lack of parks in communities of color in Los Angeles is not an accident of unplanned growth, but the result of a history and pattern of discriminatory land use planning, racially restrictive housing covenants, discriminatory funding formulas, and other practices,” show that minorities are meant to stay as the minority (Bullard, p. 147). The laws enacted to previously unequally divided environmental protection were so skewed the effect is permanent. The minorities, who had to deal with living in an environment that was not as fruitful as others, are in no place to move into a healthier environment “class.” Race keeps people from incorporating with one another. Hence, laws benefit the majority race (White) of people in America. Therefore, making it easier to keep their sections of cities clean.
The ruling of Alexander V. Sandoval is another illustration of how the government is attempting to debar certain minorities from environmental protection. This ruling solidifies the stratification of the minority’s equal human rights. Although, Bullard suggests several scenarios that can still be used as a catalyst for equal protection, “Building multicultural alliances; pursuing legislative and political advocacy and strategic media campaigns; undertaking multidisciplinary research and analyses of financial, demographic and historical data; and strengthening democratic involvement in the public decision-making process” (Bullard, p. 166). Subsequently, this shows that there is an expectation for an equal distribution of environmental protection at some point in the near future. It certainly appears that minority factions are being denied basic human rights, which must be remedied in the present day society. The processes of dumping toxic waste and building landfills needs to be reverted into a fair procedure allowing each race to entertain basic human rights, regardless of current living standards.

Module 5 - Environmental Human Rights

Hurricane Katrina, The Environment, and Biloxi

 

            In his book, The Quest for Environmental Justice, Robert Bullard writes about the significant environmental and racial problems facing the Deep South, especially in Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. In February 2007, I went on a trip to Biloxi, Mississippi to help rebuild homes damaged by Hurricane Katrina. I found that many of the issues that Bullard brings up in his book are exactly what I experienced and observed in Biloxi.

            One of the first things that I noticed about Biloxi was the extraordinarily high level of poverty. Even before Hurricane Katrina, the Gulf Coast, especially Mississippi, was one of the poorest places in the country. The Gulf Coast had one of the highest levels of chronic disease in the nation. “Communities populated by low-income groups and people of color of exposed to higher levels of pollution than the rest of the nation, and that these populations experience certain diseases in higher numbers.” (Bullard, 4). One of the major problems that the poor neighborhoods in Biloxi faced after Katrina was the lingering effects of chemicals, toxic items, and human feces that contaminated the entire city after the Hurricane destroyed septic tanks, factories, and gas stations. The more affluent, and whiter, areas of the city were cleaned up first, while the poorer, and blacker, areas were cleaned up last. Many black residents got sick from the long-term exposure to broken sewers and chemical spills. I worked mostly in the poorer neighborhoods simply because there was so much work that needed to be done in those areas, even a year and a half after Katrina hit.

            Another accurate observation that Bullard makes is that the poverty in the South is very exploitable. “A colonial mentality exists in the South, where local governments and big business take advantage of people who are politically and economically powerless … It is our nation’s Third World, where political bosses encourage outsiders to buy the region’s human and natural resources at bargain prices.” (Bullard, 88). In the wake of Katrina, Biloxi was in desperate need for jobs and new businesses. In order to attract more companies, the city lowered many of its health and zoning standards. Entire neighborhoods are now being bought up at extremely low prices, and then being bulldozed to make space for shopping centers. Currently, in the middle of the poorest part of the city, there is a massive new casino. At the time when I was there, two new factories were being built in the east part of the city. While these new businesses offer thousands of jobs to the desperately poor residents of Biloxi, the companies now have significant influence with the city government. This means that safety and health regulations, as well as zoning laws regarding the proximity of factories to residential areas, will be negatively affected.

            While I observed many of the same problems that Bullard discusses, I feel that, realistically, there is little that can be done to help Mississippi and the rest of the South. Poverty, unemployment, and substandard education are issues that have deeply entrenched themselves in the South. Just as it took Southern cities more than a century to change their racist policies after the Civil War, I believe that it will take many years for true socio-economic and environmental change to take place.

            

Module 5- Environmental Racism

Matt Yuill

The term “Environmental Racism” seems to have multiple meanings and connotations. Some of these are mutually exclusive, while others are not. Some would argue that it is truly a problem of racism, whilst others assert it to be a class dispute. In “The Quest for Environmental Justice”, the argument is made that it can be defined as a problem of racism. For some reason, minorities are subjected to environmental inequalities at a level not seen by any other group. Is race a more important factor than location or class? This does not seem entirely likely. It is undeniable that there are countless Environmental violations which disproportionately affect certain groups; yet this inequality is a class and wealth-based discrimination due to business, not a racist conspiracy.

It cannot be denied that there have been many violations of rights due to environmental activities. In Houston, landfills and trash incinerators have the greatest concentration around the poorest areas. (Bullard 46). There are countless chemical factories based around the most impoverished areas of the Mississippi River. So much so, that this area has been coined “Cancer Alley.”(Bullard 88) Such things are not a problem reserved for the U.S., either. In Nigeria, the discovery of oil has lead to rapid exploitation of the land. Moreover, it has caused strife between varying groups within the country. (Ishay 361) People in this area are subjected to issues including; inadequate sanitation, unavailability of water and food, air pollution, and even a lack of clean energy. (Bullard 282)While less calamitous, there is also the mild issue of parks and beaches. The availability of public parks in many cities is done in a manner to exclude the low class. Parks are kept in advantaged areas, and many pre-existing parks in less affluent areas are converted or sold to other endeavors. (Bullard 148) All of these examples illuminate a very real problem.

However, it is inaccurate to assert that such problems are based more on race than on class. This is true for all of the existing examples. Businesses such as landfills and chemical facilities exist in these areas because it is the most profitable. The poorer an area, the lower the land values will be. This makes the profit of running business in less wealthy areas much more economically viable. Moreover, those in higher classes will generally have a greater voice to protest such violations. Even in South Africa, violations are based on monetary concerns. There are severe environmental problems in Africa mainly due to the economic strains of other pressing problems; such as treating HIV/AIDS, educating the youth, and supplying food. (Bullard 268) Even while the black elite holds power in South Africa, the violations against poor black citizens continues. (Bullard 256) Even the book mentions this fact. It mentions how the privatization of business in many areas increases the profit motive. (Bullard 271) As such, it should be stated conclusively that the idea of “Environmental Racism” is an issue of wealth, not race.

In Summation, It is absolutely true that environmental concerns exist, and unequally affect certain groups of society. However, this uneven distribution is not something that should be contributed to racism. Instead, it should be recognized that such issues are the result of business, and affect people based on class.

Environmental Rights: Civil or Social? (Module 5)

The idea of environmental rights has been debated for a while, specifically within The Quest for Environmental Justice. The main debate though is not over whether or not environmental rights do exist, but instead it is debated as to if they are civil or social rights. Environmental rights can be considered civil rights because of environmental racism but at the same time they can be considered social rights because they are part of a person’s health. Either way, environmental rights need to be upheld and honored in our country, but which category they fall beneath depends on the way you look at them.

Environmental rights can be considered civil rights because of the patterns of environmental problems occurring in areas of minority groups. Environmental racism is an issue of equality, just as segregation is. The problems that most people have with environmental is that the money they earn from the low wage jobs they work is not enough to get them out of the poisoned and polluted areas. Landfills and incinerators are constantly being placed in cities rather than suburbs, bringing up one of Bullard’s fundamental questions; “why do some communities get dumped on while others don’t?” (Bullard 2). Those who can afford to escape the trash do and those who can’t don’t. The problem is that since more and more people are not being able to afford living in cleaner and safer areas, the population grows and as does trash. The influx of trash creates a need for more landfills and incinerators and more factories to produce more goods. The only way to guarantee the civil side of environmental rights is to eliminate as much as the environmental rights as possible, which can only work by regulating the output of pollution that factories and incinerators leave. As for landfills, the idea of putting them within any sort of inhabitable area cannot work. In order to eliminate the race discrepancy, landfills must only be created in areas that are not lived in or around.

As for the social side of environmental rights, the matter of environmental security as a fundamental right comes into play. The right to life is infringed upon, as well as the right to a healthy existence. Environmental rights are a right for all. “[A]fter much prodding from environmental justice leaders, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) acknowledged its mandate to protect all Americans” (Bullard 3). While civil rights help those of a certain race experiencing equality issues, social rights encompass all American citizens and guarantees these rights from birth til death. We all live in the environment, breathing the same air that is polluted by the same companies all over the country. In order to encompass ever group down to the last person and avoid more environmental racism is to consider environmental rights as a right for all. Children have a fundamental right to play (Bullard 145) in a healthy and pollution free environment not only in urban parks but suburban ones as well. Adults have the right to breathe clean air no matter where they reside. As Americans, we have the right to lead a healthy life that can only be insured by the universal recognition of the government’s duty to provide us with a healthy living environment.

While environmental rights do hold a civil value, their roots are in the social and fundamental style of human rights. As a right for all, environmental rights can be spread across a wide rage of people and avoid being even more of a civil issue by encompassing every person of every race, creed, and age. No matter what environmental cleanliness and stability are insured to us as American citizens through not only our own Constitution and the right to a healthy lifestyle but also the United Nations Declaration of International Human Rights. Our health is granted to us as people rather than as people of a specific race, making environmental rights more of a social issue rather than a civil one.

The Importance of Pragmatic Solidarity

In Pathologies of Power, Dr. Paul Farmer describes his experience treating numerous patients in the more destitute areas of the world. After bearing witness to these people’s lifestyles and poor living conditions, he evaluated his opinions on health care and explored its correlation to human rights. He believes that universal health care is necessary, and enforcement of universal health care will help heal those with curable diseases rather than allow them to die. In his book, Farmer discusses a notion known as pragmatic solidarity, which involves people coming together to help those in need of overcoming an obstacle, but in a practical manner. Farmer’s overall method for solving universal health care issues would require a great deal of effort; however, the usage of pragmatic solidarity would facilitate larger movements toward equal health care opportunities.
Two areas of the world where Farmer spent a lot of time treating the ill were Central and South America, namely in Haiti and Peru, as well as many other locations. The impoverished residents of these countries are plagued by incurable diseases, such as AIDS, but are also suffering and dying from treatable diseases, such as tuberculosis. Many contract the treatable diseases from their poor living conditions and from their ignorance of disease prevention. Educating these people on the disease, as well as providing “prompt diagnosis and cure . . . are the means to prevent new infection” (Farmer 148). Generally, patients choose to stop treatments when the symptoms disappear, which actually causes long-term problems. Through pragmatic solidarity, medical professionals would work on better treatment plans for indigent patients and assist them in understanding these treatments so that they can actually be cured (Farmer 149). Because of their financial circumstances, the afflicted of these countries are mostly denied medical care. This dilemma cannot be solved anytime soon, however, “it encourages physicians to make common cause with people who are both poor and sick” (Farmer 152), which is the heart of pragmatic solidarity.
Unfortunately, the poor, who Farmer interacted with, have no voice or opinion on human rights violations in their countries, as they “rely solely on appeals to governments” (Farmer 17). History shows that the government appears to not care about the problems of the poor, which prevents the sick from finding the means to treatment or cures, even though those should be available to them regardless of government belief. Author J. Sorbrino, whom Farmer quotes, notes, “There is no doubt that the only correct way to love the poor will be to struggle for their liberation. This liberation will come at the most elementary level–that of their simple, physical life, which is what is at stake in the present situation” (Farmer 145). Pragmatic solidarity is the first step in this “liberation” of the poor. Assisting the impoverished through education and treatment would compel the government to recognize the inequality that these people have been exposed to. Pragmatic solidarity, if carried out properly, would be “a response to structural violence” (Farmer 220) and eventually, the domestic government would begin to aid in the care of the poor people living under them.
The central message of Pathologies of Power conveys the importance of pragmatic solidarity, which is a means of helping the destitute of the world by working to heal and cure them of their health inflictions. As these people are cured, they can begin to practice disease prevention as taught to them by health care professionals. The governments of the nations that contain the poor and ill would come to recognize the success of educating and treating the people, and would discover the injustice that actually destroys these people. Pragmatic solidarity is the first step toward universal health care and other human rights equalities as Dr. Paul Farmer envisions it.

Module 4

Paul Farmer’s book, Pathologies of Power addresses the complicated issue of how, as members of the developed world, do we go about helping those who live in utter poverty in most developing nations. As an anthropologist, Farmer has made the typical observations of the needs of the poor. Efforts to help must be done at the grassroots levels because only then can one be assured that the money and resources used to help those in destitute poverty doesn’t get tangled up in corrupted governments. The sad truth is that the issues facing many of these countries are “symptoms of deeper pathologies of power and are linked intimately to the social conditions that…determine who will suffer…and who will be shielded” (Farmer, 7).
Farmer brings up two commonly used solutions, charity and development, that often do more harm than good because of the lack of real thought that is put behind them. The idea of charity is all well and good in theory. However, most of the time it is equivalent to throwing money at the problem and walking away. It is a way for developed countries to do the “right” thing without having to really get their hands dirty. Developed counties often turn their backs after giving money, able to feel good that they “did something”, not bothering to make sure that the correct results are yielded. When this happens it proves that “the right to life-is trampled by great affluence” (Farmer, 6). The problem with charity is that it makes developing countries more reliant and dependent on outsiders instead of learning how to make money and products on their own. In addition, charity often never makes it to the root of the problem. It is often held up for months before being used, or never used at all due to the poor governmental conditions.
Development is also not a sufficient answer. In the modern mind, development is synonymous for conforming to the western world. The idea being, that the western world is developed, so whatever they are doing is correct. The problem here is that developing countries have no desire to drop their cultures to conform to the west. These countries do not have the means to just start a capitalist free market society, mainly because they have been exploited by core countries and many of their resources have been degraded. Strategies and theorists have come up with to solve these problems sound good in theory but lack the understanding that each situation is unique and can’t be fixed with one answer. David Ricardo’s theory of comparative advantage is a perfect example. While in theory it is a genius idea for countries to only spend time exporting what is cheapest for them to make, in execution, countries end up trading a cheaper product for a more expensive one, leaving the cheaper end in a stressful financial situation as the prices rise and they are forced to produce more just to keep up. Theories such as the import–substitution-industrialization theory seems to eliminate this problem by preaching to countries on the periphery to stop importing and to make all imports inside the country. This seems like a good answer because it lowers imports and raises exports which equal profit, however, in order for a developing nation to produce their own imports it needs to import technology and parts from the developed world. This leads to issues involving having to continue to import more technology, replacing human labor with machines and the further exploitation of these countries.
Overall, Foreign aid to countries both through theories and monetarily is flawed. This is not to say that foreign aid is bad, but that the system in which the western world currently operates under, needs to be altered to allow the developing world a chance to grow under its own cultural terms but with the aid from countries who have it to give.

MODULE FOUR: HEALTH CARE AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Paul Farmer in his book Pathologies of Power – Health, Human Rights, and the New War On Terror touches up on so many vital issues that plague nations, however seem to be poorly understood by the international community. His introductory comments are engaging right away as he distinguishes the different kinds of “knowing” an individual can have when assessing the qualities of lives of people in worst-off situations. I find it particularly interesting when Farmer points out the kinds of silences an individual can maintain; one, providing an account of the stoic nature of oppressed peoples which in a way is a silence, because Farmer points out it’s effective but “runs the risk of missing the great eloquence beneath the silence” (Farmer, 26). The other is to refrain oneself from reporting every little detail observed, as it is sometimes best to desist unearthing the pains and sufferings of individuals that come with the eloquence that lies under their own silence. I thoroughly agree with Farmer when he points out that “the two ways of knowing are not about understanding the details of the history of any given place, as important as they may be to getting the story right. The two ways of knowing […] are not about linguistic competence. To get beyond the first silence requires compassion and solidarity…” (Farmer, 27). This, I believe is the sole way of coming close to realizing the pains of people who have suffered through various human rights abuses, however as Farmer points out, the pain realized from “bearing witness” is incomparable to the actual pain felt by victims themselves.

Compassion and solidarity are, in the end, how humanity works. Nowadays it sometimes may feel that people are so caught up with their own daily struggles to realize the greater struggles of those not so fortunate such as Haitian victims like Acéphie describes in the first chapter of Farmer’s book. Struggles and oppression are likely to be presented in the form of statistical figures when trying to convey certain situations globally and by doing this the essential and the articulate details are simply lost. The actual experiences of suffering are not accounted by mere statistical figures. Farmer included a poem by Rebecca Chopp called The Praxis of Suffering in a chapter of his book which has the lines, “How can one really understand statistics / citing the deaths of six million Jews or graphs of third- world starvation? Do numbers really reveal the agony, / the interruption, the questions that these victims put to / the meaning and nature of our individual lives and life / as a whole?” (Farmer, 42). This, I feel so effectively portrays how statistics can be so inadequate. I feel that they may convey the overall terribleness of an event that may have occurred, but they hardly allow people to feel compassion or develop feelings of solidarity. Farmer uses thought-provoking poems to set the scene for what he discusses in his book.

Farmers relates Acéphie’s story in the first chapter of his book and I felt that it was a striking example of the vicious cycle poverty and occupying the lowest rung of society can bring about. In poorer countries like Haiti where infrastructure is pitiable the underprivileged really are stuck in situations where one bad thing may lead to worst. In her case, she ended up with AIDS and her family was worst off than before.

Overall, I feel that much of the problems faced by people who are less well off tend to stem from each other. Poverty is the root of such problems, and factors like government corruption as observed in the case of Haiti just water such vicious situations. Until this is not axed at the root, such issues will continue to exist, and for the time being one can try to maintain the a stance of compassion and solidarity as a way of knowing what really is going on.

Healthcare (Module 4)

The failure of public health measures to prevent AIDS from becoming, in a single generation, the leading cause of death for young women living in poverty. The failure of researchers to bring into relief the mechanisms by which poverty and gender inequality create situations of risk for poor women. The failure of physicians to insist that HIV care be available to poor women. The failure to care enough about a catastrophe that, increasingly, primarily affects the poor.

-Paul Farmer, Professor of Medical Anthropology
at Harvard Medical School

The economical gains of one’s personal achievement seem to run the mentality of all enterprises in the world. Unfortunately this includes the system of healthcare. Healthcare is something that, soon enough, only the upper class will be able to afford. Should something such as the flu vaccination be reserved for those who can afford it, or should other factors apply such as one’s previous medical conditions, etc? The present condition of healthcare is horrific for those who cannot afford to support a healthcare option. If such an option is not available, life is an uphill fight for medical care. The struggle to overcome poverty often hinders the decisions one makes to put themselves in a more comfortable living arrangement. This inevitably forces people to attempt to overcome poverty in an even worse state of health, leading into an even darker hole. Issues such as personal morality and self-respect are too often disregarded when people try to move up in classes.
In the small city of Kay, Haiti the people live off of a very humble standard. Lavish homes and automobiles simply do not exist. Acephie Joseph, a common citizen, fell for a soldier (soldiers were actually paid by the government) and became sexual partners with him for a brief amount of time (Farmer, p. 32). This soldier was known for having several partners and infected Joseph with HIV/AIDS. Unfortunately this turned Joseph’s life upside down as she could barely care for her own needs and was left, “with no means of feeding her five hungry children, two of whom were also ill” (Farmer, p. 35). If Joseph had been economically stable, then the probability of her going after a man for financial purposes would have been extremely slim. Going along with this Paul Farmer states, “The women I interviewed were straightforward…poverty had forced them into unfavorable unions” (p. 39). Those living in poverty are at a greater risk for serious health problems. Obviously Joseph did not have the means to afford medical care for herself and died a very painful and exhausting death. It seems as though something like this could have been prevented. If Joseph had not been concerned with economic status, then perhaps she would still be alive today.
Building upon the argument that poverty pushes people to make decisions that are not necessarily the best, there is the story of Brenda. Brenda, who was infected with HIV/AIDS, does not live comfortably. Attempting to find affordable drugs has become a nightmare, and this is no coincidence. Medical companies work with doctors and healthcare providers to “ration” remedies. “Rationing effective therapies can actually serve to deepen the gaps between the rich and the poor” (Farmer, p. 165). Many poor patients find themselves as labeled “noncompliant” with the ability to participate in medical trials. Many times, participation in these trials is the only way available (Farmer, p. 164). It is easy to see what exactly is happening here. The lower class is being labeled as “noncompliant” and is viewed by the Healthcare providers and pharmaceutical factories as less important to those who can pay full price. Fortunately Brenda was able to find the remedies because she lives in such an “affluent country” and because she lives near a “teaching hospital” (Farmer, p. 166).
Should healthcare become a universal entity? Should getting an equal amount of health care be a human right? In an utopist ideal the answer to both questions would be yes. In reality, however, at least some change must go into the system. Acephie Joseph is not a unique scenario; in her battle to overcome a poverty stricken state she was infected with HIV/AIDS and eventually died because of it. A scenario like this is bothersome because if the disease had been taken care of in the first place then a matter such as this simply would not occur. Also, once infected if Joseph had access to some sort of aid at least she may have been able to increase her lifespan to help mother her children. Connecting to the issue of the gap between the wealthy and poor can also be found in Brenda, a struggling parent. She just was trying to make ends meet and was originally told “no” to medicine because she was labeled as “noncompliant.” This is an example of how healthcare must be equally available to anybody in need. In a matter of health, money should not be a determining factor of availability of treatment. This current system fails an entire class of people.

"Think globally, act locally"

Health care is a service that should provide for all social classes regardless of financial capital. Instead, it feeds into the moneymaking ideals of capitalism, becoming a profit-making machine that no longer looks to provide these services to the needy. The giant drug corporations look to eliminate those individuals whom they deem “cost ineffective”. As services are continually cut back, the people who end up suffering the most are those who already can’t afford the ever-rising cost of medical products. The lower class is at the highest risk for entirely curable diseases due to their financial shortcomings and the unsupportive practices employed by drug companies.
Many people find themselves living at a level of poverty that goes well beyond that of what one commonly thinks of as a lower class lifestyle. For example, citizens of Haiti and apartheid South Africa are turning into “nobodies” as defined by Eduardo Galeano. (1) Little regard is paid to the poverty stricken who want little more than to escape the confines of “structural violence” that continually plagues their every effort.
“Acts of violence are perpetrated usually by the strong against the weak, in complex social fields.” (9) Not only are the poor not offered progressive opportunities by the volatile ruling class, but also they are continually oppressed and taken advantage of. “Conservative estimates suggest that one billion souls live in dire poverty.” (143) The struggles of these people cannot be looked at as simply a minor human rights violation. The global community must accept responsibility for the crimes committed against humanity. Just because somebody is born into poverty, or in some cases placed there by government plans themselves, does not mean that the government can allow their ever increasing problems to fester. For example, in Haiti, the Peligre dam was a major reason for the struggles of many of the nations poorest. “Most of our tuberculosis patients were landless peasants living in the most dire poverty. They had lost their land a generation before when the Peligre dam, part of an internationally funded developments project, flooded their fertile valley.” (149) Not only did the plan backfire, but also it destroyed the lives of countless citizens and placed them at a severe risk for disease and poverty. These problems should be accounted for and resolved by a more pragmatic approach to medical care distribution.
Many countries are based around a free market capitalistic economy. Even for those countries that aren’t, or have a more restricted market, they are still subject to the high costs of drugs set forth by the big drug companies. “Allowing ‘market forces’ to sculpt the outlines of modern medicine will mean that unwelcome trends will continue until we are forced to conclude that even the practice of medicine can constitute a human rights abuse.” (138) Clearly, drug companies have the means to provide treatment to Third World countries, yet they instigate human rights abuses by continuing to raise profits in order to reap more profit. As more and more drug companies look to tighten their grasp on profits, services that were traditionally provided to the poor are being labeled “cost-ineffective.” (159) This furthers the idea of a lack of support by drug company executives, who already make extremely large salaries, being more concerned with producing profit-making drugs. Patients should be provided with both medicine and financial aid to help support a healthier diet. Without a nutritious diet to go along with the medicine, particularly parents suffering from diseases often go without meals with the pure intention of allowing their kids to eat first. However, this improper balance of nutrition can greatly reduce the efficiency of the medications. There are many things that both drug companies and government intervention could do to help provide for the poor.
It would be impossible to instantaneously solve the problem of poverty in the world. Not only does it exist in Third World countries, but throughout the rest of the nations to various extents. One possible approach poised to the world is to “think globally, act locally.” (172) By acting on the problems at the local level we would be able to distribute resources on a case-by-case basis to best serve the needs of society. Through this approach, we would ultimately be serving the needs of the globe by increasing the standard of living for everyone regardless of social standing.

True Life Stories Reveal The Agony Of The Poor

In Pathologies of Power, Paul Farmer uses case studies to examine the social and economic rights struggle, as it relates to human health. A central theme of this book is that human right abuses are found, and best understood, from the perspective of the impoverished. In the chapter entitled “On Suffering and Structural Violence,” Paul Farmer shares a story of Acephie Joseph, a young Haitian woman, and her struggle and ultimate downfall as a result of being infected with AIDS. He, consequently, questions how large-scale social forces have become a part of the sickness, suffering, and degradation of the Haitian people. Paul Farmer believes that anthropology, sociology, history and other “resocializing” disciplines, should play important roles in fixing the deeper pathologies of power in order to protect human rights (Farmer 20). Therefore, anthropologists study both the individual experience and the larger social environment in order to understand how social pressures and events create distress and disease. Numbers and statistics can only do so much to persuade people to act accordingly and create change. Therefore by sharing personal accounts about true-life experiences, Paul Farmer hopes to initiate people to act accordingly.
Haiti, where the story takes place, is a country characterized by “extreme human suffering” and poverty. Individuals living in Haiti fight each day for food, water, and wood in order to survive the harsh living conditions. The life expectancy is less than 50 years in Haiti, and two out of every ten infants die before their first birthday. The leading causes of death among adults in Haiti are AIDS and tuberculosis, while the measles, tetanus, and diarrheal disease harm the children and undernourished.
In Acephie’s case, AIDS was the “bad illness” that took over her body. In Kay, a small town affected by the flood, a majority of the population was forced to move and become impoverished. When the flood took place, Acephie and her family specifically lost their home and most of their belongings, and crops. As a result, Acephie felt that it was her responsibility to help her family financially and began, at the age of 19, to help her mother carry produce to the markets. Because of Acephie’s beauty and elegance, many soldiers would pay close attention to her, specifically Captain Honorat. Despite Captain Honorat having a wife and children, he and Acephie had sexual relations for a month before he left her, as a result of falling sick with the fever.
By age 22, Acephie went to Port-au-Prince and found a job as a housekeeper. While she only made a measly $30 a month, Acephie still continually sent money back to her family and siblings. While away from home, Acephie began to be sexually active with a new man, Blanco Nerette, who had done well for his social standing and in fact had sufficient economic resources to be her “moun prensipal” or main man (Farmer 34). Yet Acephie soon had to leave her job, as a housekeeper, after discovering she was pregnant. After having a difficult pregnancy, Acephie had repeated infections and was eventually diagnosed with AIDS. When looking back on her sexual experiences Acephie said, “I never dreamed he would give me a bad illness, never! I looked around and saw how poor we all were, how the old people were finished…What would you have me do? It was a way out, that’s how I saw it” (Farmer 34). Her reaction is a common theme among AIDS victims in Haiti and around the world.
Many Haitian women of her era, believed that the only “way out” was to become involved with a man in hopes that they could support her financially. Females, however, endure the most common domestic violence and rape crimes worldwide. Statistically one in four women have been the victim of rape, or been physically battered. Today, the world’s poor are the primary victims of structural violence due to the distinct barrier between the rich and poor. Thus, those individuals in poverty are forced to die in silence because the pain of the poor does not directly affect the upper classes (Farmer 50).
While stories like Acephie Joseph and Chouchou Louis are horrifying and disturbing, millions of people in Haiti are living in similar conditions. In fact, many may have a similar fate as a result of being members of the bottom social class in Haiti’s non-democratic society. Many Haitian young women during Acephie’s lifetime fled to Port-au-Prince in an attempt to escape poverty and seek financial security. However, many were unsuccessful and as a result poverty forced them into unfavorable marriages and causal sexual activity. An important thing to realize though is how true life stories tell more than just statistics and figures. The stories of these individuals suffering and the magnitude of their pain, move readers, like myself, to push for equality and human rights for all.

Module 4: The Nameless Ones

Article 25 of the Declaration of Human Rights states that ‘everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for health and well-being, including food, clothing, housing, medical care and necessary social services.’ This therefore suggests that every man, woman and child has the unquestionable human right to the highest degree of physical and mental health, regardless of age, sex, class, race, nationality or political preference. (http://www.pdhre.org/rights/health.html) These ideals relate to the notion that human rights are universal and inalienable. However, this particular aspiration is far, far away from the truth. The reality is that throughout the world, millions of people are subject to atrocious standards of living and disastrous conditions of health.

Throughout his text ‘Pathologies of Power,’ Paul Farmer attempts to determine a definition for suffering, violence and misery. These are factors that dominate the lives of many people. Suffering is an everyday part of the poor’s existence, and this is something that Paul Farmer wishes to address. For the poor people of the world, everyday life seems like a war. (Farmer, P. ‘Pathologies of Power,’ 28) Life for them is a constant fight for survival in a world that is relentless, unforgiving and merciless. In the opening passages of his book, Paul Farmer questions several aspects revolving around the suffering of the poor. Aids, political violence and the monotony of inescapable difficulties are themes that poor people contend, or compete with everyday. The ultimate prize in this deadly competition is their life and that of their families.

How then do human rights relate to health and the poor? In the Western world, we make powerful claims to our rights. We are fortunate enough to live in a society where such rights are a fundamental feature of our existence. We are fortunate enough to live in a world where there are facilities that promote and simultaneously protect our claim to human rights. This is the result of our heritage. Such rights are ours without question. The story is very different for those unfortunate souls who are not part of ‘our’ culture. For the poor and the forgotten, human rights are a distant dream, a feeble aspiration, and an unattainable desire. The world’s poor are not as fortunate as us to make a claim to human rights. They do not have the same institutions that provide us with rights. The provisions of the various international conventions seem to be out of reach for the poor. As a result, talk of the universality and inalienability of human rights is nothing more than meager. They effectively have no rights. Consequently, they have no claim to adequate health care, and they have no right to aspire to higher standards of living like we do.

According to Farmer, the ‘task of understanding suffering in a global context is urgent and feasible if we are to protect human rights.’ (Farmer, 42) In other words, the answer to alleviating the suffering of poor people worldwide may be discovered in such protection. Unfortunately, the fact that government and other powerful institutions all over the world continue to violate and disregard human rights, results in the continuation of the suffering of the poor. In today’s world ‘the poor are more likely to suffer and less likely to have their suffering noticed’ (Farmer, 50) by the international community. Instead, what has emerged is the construction of a wall between the rich and the poor that essentially hides the realities of poverty from other powerful, and oblivious, nations. (Farmer, 50) As illustrated by Farmer in ‘Pathologies of Power’ this wall is being constructed so that ‘poverty does not annoy the powerful’ and so that ‘the poor are obliged to die in the silence of history.’ (Farmer, 50)

‘The knowledge of suffering cannot be conveyed in pure facts, figures and reporting’s that objectify the suffering of countless persons. The horror of poverty is not is immensity but the faces of the anonymous victims who have little voice, let alone rights, in history.’ (Chopp, 1986, p 2)

To whom do human rights belong? Do human rights belong to all human beings or are they the privilege of those born in societies that acknowledge them?

Module three: Social and Economic Rights: A 20th Century US Perspective.

The United States of America, to many people represents the ultimate embodiment of capitalism, the world where you can really make it big, the place to be if you want to get anywhere. The American Dream indeed is the picture quite a few people have around the world, of this country where poverty doesn’t exist much. And sure, it’s true one doesn’t see many people here begging on streets in rags or street children running astray. However that doesn’t mean that people living in this country don’t go through almost the same kind of stress such as trying to figure out where the next meal will come from, how to make ends meet, especially those with other mouths to feed.
Barbara Ehrenreich in her book Nickle and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America manages to portray very effectively the stress that comes with the life of a person entering the labor market through welfare reform. She manages to outline the difficult and demanding working situations people working in the lower tiers of the labor market experience such as those of waiters and house cleaning staff. Ehrenreich mentions how the pay she receives hardly makes ends meet for herself, and often this is after doing hours of back breaking work that yields to paying off of rent that is too high for a person working in that strata, and oh, perhaps a meal or two from the convenience store. One realizes how people trying to make ends meet in America often face physical and emotional stress, to the extent that people start believing that life is not more than a struggle to just survive and each move determines whether you pass, or fail. This is clearly apparent in the first chapter of the book where after quitting her waitressing job, Ehrenreich she reflects: “There is vindication in this exit, no fuck-you surge of relief, just an overwhelming dank sense of failure pressing down on me…” (Ehrenreich, 48). This shows how not only does a person go through physically and emotionally painful situations in the workplace, but in the end they seem to blame themselves for their inability to stick to the job that obvious takes more than gives. One can say that Ehrenreich is referring to failure in the sense that her investigation as a journalist is going poorly, but she does mention how she felt a failure for “reasons best known to hardworking, generous people like Gail and Ellen…” (Ibid) her co-workers, people with similar working experiences. In another case Ehrenreich says “I’m sorry, I tried to ignore it, but it undermines my efficiency when I’m have to work alongside people who are crying, fainting, starving, or otherwise visibly suffering…” (Ehrenreich, 112) again indicating the kinds of stress people go through in such working conditions. These are just some of the examples of what people in the labor class of the society go through. One may point out that it’s probably a way of life for those people and once you get used to it, it’s not so bad. Nevertheless, I’m sure the pain and stress is still tantamount.
As a person not coming from this country, it is apparent to me that the environment here significantly is more about being independent and paving a road for yourself where you can be successful in this capitalist society. Again, there is that very prevalent sense of either being successful or failing and you are the only person responsible for that. To an extent this is true, but at the same time this may create a sense of isolation that may lead to self-decay. It may be stretching it to link this idea to the laissez-faire theory mentioned in Cass Sunstein’s The Second Bill of Rights. FDR’s Unfinished Revolution and Why We Need it More than Ever, or rather, the myth of the theory. Sunstein is right in proclaiming that no one opposes government intervention and that a large amount of the population depends on it. The laissez-faire theory is, according to Sunstein, “a hopelessly inadequate description of any system of liberty, including free market” (Sunstein, 19). This is apparent when in America the government offers free healthcare to people who can’t afford it, or free education. However Ehrenreich mentions how the government fails to cover one aspect of providing basic necessities, and that is housing. She discusses how government expenditures on public housing have fallen since the 1980’s (Ehrenreich, 201) and housing prices remain expensive, whereas wages remain “flat” as Ehrenreich puts it. This again, poses countless problems to those in the labor class.
To wrap up, America the idea may represent opportunity and a road to success, but without sufficient education or background one can’t get very far. Needless to say, this is the case in probably every society, however it’s interesting to realize how people may have access to facilities here in America, but relatively, life can be equally as miserable for a person in America’s labor class compared to a person coming from a poor background in a lesser developed country – not literally, but both probably face the same kind of stress relative to the society they live in.

Martin Luther King Jr and the Nonviolent Fight Against Violence

Martin Luther King Jr. is the quintessential example of a man fighting for change. In the 1960’s, it seemed that racial tensions would continue to escalate. Racism was widespread throughout America, and acts of violence were prevalent on both sides. The Ku Klux Klan was still a force, making life difficult for African Americans. Conversely, the Black Panthers and Malcolm X also resorted to violence to make their demand for equality heard. The Great Migration caused the heavy concentration of African Americans in the inner city that were on fire due to the rioting. How could Martin Luther King Jr. attempt to force reform, without resorting to violence? Dr. King realized that by utilizing peaceful protest and coercive nonviolence, he could achieve more reform than by resorting to violence.
Martin Luther King Jr. never considered violence as an option, however he did see the need for change. He believed in using a tactic called coercive nonviolence, which was the act of using passive force to call for change. “King was ready to throw ‘real force’ against Kennedy and Congress, telling Levison looked forward to seeing ‘Negroes sitting all over Washington’ (Jackson 174)”. More people active in the boycotts, more people in the marches, media publicity to pressure the government, were all tactics King sought to use.
Eventually, Dr. King found the conflict that was perfect for publicity to push civil and social rights. African Americans had to abide by the seating of the bus drivers, and they would make the African Americans stand up so a white person could take their seat. Rosa Parks refused to leave her seat for a white passenger. She was arrested, and found guilty in court. Her passive approach was exactly the protest tactic Dr. King desired. She was also a respectable figure in society, a middle aged secretary. The publicity of her arrest and trial led to the outrage of the African Americans in the community. For an entire year, the majority of the black population boycotted the public bus company. Eventually, the bus company was forced to make concessions. This was a huge victory in the fight for justice because the black community beat the financially advantaged bus company without resorting to violence.
What would it take for the government to look for reform? The answer lies in his idea of coercive nonviolence. Dr. King absolutely abhorred all forms of violence, and was even seen as an ‘American Gandhi’. He organized marches and events, which he used to pressure the government to enact reform. One of the most famous marches was the march on Washington while John Kennedy was in office. Kennedy had promised reform for and aid for African Americans, but he fell well short of the expectations of Martin Luther King Jr. that involved better job opportunities, racial equality, and an end to segregation. This highly and precisely organized event was designed to coerce the government to action. Every person in the march was given a sign or some sort of role, there was no room to deviate from the overall objective. Even thought the march had many goals and grievances, “…the march had no single ‘original’ plan; it represented a convergence of several streams of expectations and hope”(Jackson 172), it remained a well-organized protest. Violence would not be tolerated, as the march was meant to build a respectable aura around the civil and social reforms King was trying to push for.
Setbacks in his pacifistic fight for rights were the other African Americans that did not directly follow King. While not all were obstacles, the rioting and the lynching did not facilitate favorable change. There were many cases where members of the Black Panthers would use violence to achieve heir means. This directly opposes King’s tactic of coercive nonviolence. However, who could blame them? Many white racists used violence to intimidate blacks into submission. This is why the Black Panthers had so many followers, because people felt that King’s passive approach would not be taken seriously by the government or the community.
Chicago, Cleveland, and Newark burned in the night, as the result of dangerous riots, which poses setback for respectable vision that Dr. King, had desired for his movement. King had to stress to his followers that violence does not give the civil rights movement a good persona. He detested the media because it only really covered the violence thus many of King’s deeds did not make the news. People want to see violence, and they realized that publicity would come through these actions, not speeches and protest. This view was contradictory to King’s view. Despite the media coverage and the pressure to resort to violence, King remained a pacifist, and became an idol for people across the world.
In a time where the black community was ruthlessly oppressed by many in the white community, and with the absence of government action, violence was sure to spout. It takes strong character to be able to take verbal, emotional and physical abuse and refuse to react with violence. Some did not have this strength, such as the black nationalists. They had pride in their culture and heritage, but they felt that violence was the way to force reform. However, their actions, while frightening, were detrimental to Dr. King’s goals. It becomes easy to see African Americans lighting cities on fire and rioting in the streets and label them savages. Dr. King sought to legitimize the movement for reform of social structure. Even when his house was firebombed, he still did not desire retaliation of any sort on the culprits. “King knew his effectiveness in the North depended on how well nonviolence and the promise of integration cold deliver shoes, overcoats and political clout to the urban masses. He achieved metaphorical sainthood, and is epitomized as a pivotal character in history. Preaching nonviolence and at the same time pressuring the government to enact reform was more effective than lynching. Dr. King’s words were for effective than any riot could be, and for this, Dr. King is a household name in American pastime. Dr. King’s tactic of coercive nonviolence and passive protest proved more compelling than violence, and helped shape the lives Americans today.